Gustav Stickley - Craftsman Style
This text is a chapter from Gustav Stickley's 1909 book "Craftsman Homes" and details how his products were produced. He was especially interested in Quarter sawn oak fumed with ammonia. I would like to hear ideas/suggestions or advice about how his ideas hold up against modern woods and finishes. Keep in mind this was written in 1909 so his ideas of safety and environmental factors may not be up to modern standards. I would like to know if his ideas might provide inspiration for creating high value products for sawyers. This whole site is a work in progress, so don't expect all the links to work or the pages to make complete sense.
OUR NATIVE WOODS AND THE CRAFTSMAN METHOD OF FINISHING THEM
So much of the success of the whole Craftsman scheme of building and decoration depends upon the right selection and treatment of the woodwork, which forms such an important part of the structural and also of the decorative scheme, that we have considered it worth while to devote an entire chapter to such information and instruction as we are able to give concerning some of our native woods that we consider most desirable for this purpose. We are taking up only the woods that are native to this country, for the reason that they are nearest at hand and because, when finished by our method, they reveal the beauty of color and grain that forms the basis of the whole Craftsman idea of interior decoration. These vary widely, as each wood possesses strongly marked characteristics as to color, texture and grain; but all the woods we mention here are desirable for interior trim and the use of them is much more in accordance with the Craftsman scheme of decoration than are the elaborate and more or less exotic effects obtained by the use of expensive foreign woods. This does not mean that we claim greater beauty for the native woods, but merely that, when properly treated, they are quite as interesting as any of the more costly woods imported from other countries and have the great advantage of being easily obtainable at moderate cost.
We need not dwell upon the importance of using a generous amount of woodwork to give an effect of permanence, homelikeness and rich warm color in a room. Anyone who has ever entered a house in which the friendly natural wood is used in the form of wainscoting, beams and structural features of all kinds, has only to contrast the impression given by such an interior with that which we receive when we go into the average house, where the plain walls are covered with plaster and paper and the conventional door and window frames are of painted or varnished wood, in order to realize the difference made by giving to the woodwork its full value in the decorative scheme. No care bestowed on decoration, or expense lavished on draperies or furniture, can make up for the absence of wood in the interior of a house. This is a truth that has long been understood and applied in the older countries, especially in England, whose mellow friendly old houses are the delight and despair of Americans; but it is only a few years sincewe began to apply it to the building and furnishing of our own homes. With us the realization of the possibilities of natural wood when used as a basis for interior decoration first took root in the West, particularly on the Pacific Coast, where the delightful atmosphere of rooms that were wainscoted, ceiled and beamed with California redwood gave rise to a new departure in the finishing and decoration of our homes, and stirred the East to follow suit.
In recommending the generous use of woodwork, however, we would have it clearly understood that we mean the use of wood so finished that its individual qualities of grain, texture and color are preserved so far as possible, and such treatment of wall spaces and structural features that they are not made unduly prominent, but rather sink quietly into the background and become a part of the room itself, forming a friendly unobtrusive setting for the furniture, draperies and ornaments, instead of coming into competition with them. To this end the woodwork should be so finished that its inherent color quality is deepened and mellowed as if by time and its surface made pleasantly smooth without sacrificing the woody quality that comes from frankly revealing its natural texture. When this is done, the little sparkling irregularity of the grain allows a play of light over the surface that seems to give it almost a soft radiance, —a quality that we lose entirely in woodwork that is filled, stained to a solid color, varnished and polished so that the light is reflected from a hard unsympathetic surface.
It is interesting also to note how much the character of a room depends upon the kind of wood we use in it. For example, the impression given by oak is strong, austere and dignified, suggesting stability and permanence such as would naturally belong to a house built to last for generations. It is a robust, manly sort of wood and is most at home in large rooms which are meant for constant use, such as the living room, reception hall, library or dining room. Chestnut, ash and elm, —although each one has an individual quality of color and grain that differentiates it from all the others, —all come into the same class as oak, in that they are strong-fibered, opentextured woods that find their best use in the rooms in which the general life of the house-hold is carried on. The finer-textured woods, such as maple, beech, birch and gumwood, are more suitable for the woodwork in smaller and more daintily furnished rooms that are not so roughly used, such as bedrooms or small private sitting rooms. Aside from this general classification, the choice of wood for interior woodwork naturally must depend upon the taste of the home-builder, the requirements of the decorative scheme planned for the house as a whole, and the ease with which a particular kind of wood may be obtained.
In considering the relative value of our native woods for interior woodwork, we are inclined to give first place to the American white oak, which possesses not only strength of fiber and beauty of color and markings, but great durability, as its sturdiness and the hardness of its texture enables it to withstand almost any amount of wear. In this respect it is far superior to the other woods, such as chestnut, ash and elm, which we have mentioned as being in the same general class of open-textured, strong- fibered woods ; although these, under the right treatment, possess a color quality finer than that of oak, in that they show a greater degree of that mellow radiance which counts so much in the atmosphere of a room. This is especially true of chestnut, which is so rich in color that it fairly glows. But in addition to its dignity and durability, there is something about oak that stirs the imagination. Not only is it suggestive of the rich somber time-mellowed rooms of old English houses which have seen generation after generation live and die in them, but it is the wood we are accustomed to associate with nearly all the magnificent carved work of earlier days. In fact, oak has come to stand as a symbol of strength and permanence, and a great part of our affection for it comes from the romance and the rare old associations with which its very name is surrounded.
There are many varieties of oak in this country, but of these the white oak is by far the most desirable, both for cabinetmaking and for interior woodwork. One reason for this is the deep, ripened color it takes on under the process we use for finishing it,— a process which gives the appearance of age and mellowness without in any way altering the character of the wood. We refer to the fuming with ammonia, which we have already described in the preceding chapter. The fact that ammonia fumes will darken new oak was discovered by accident. Some oak boards stored in a stablein England were found after a time to have taken on a beautiful mellow brown tone and on investigation this change in color was discovered to be due to the ammonia fumes that naturally are present in stables. This ripening, so essential to the beauty of oak wood-work, takes a long time when left to the unaided action of air and sunlight, and the fact that the wood darkened very quickly when it was stored in a stable led to experimenting with the effect of ammonia fumes upon various kinds of oak. The reason for this effect was at first unknown and, to the best of our belief, it was not discovered until the experiments with fuming made in The Craftsman Workshops established the fact that the darkening of the wood was due to the chemical affinity existing between ammonia and tannic acid, of which there is a large percentage present in white oak.
This being established, preparations were at once made for using ammonia fumes in a practical way, which we have already described in a preceding chapter. The process mentioned there, however, is practicable only when furniture is to be fumed, as it is quite possible to construct an air-tight compartment sufficiently large to hold one or more pieces of furniture, but when it comes to fuming the woodwork of a whole room it is not so easy. The fuming boxes we use in The Craftsman Workshops are made of tarred canvas stretched tightly over large light wooden frames which are padded heavily around the bottom so that no air can creep in between the box and the floor. The box is drawn to the ceiling by means of a rope and pulley; the furniture is piled directly below and shallow dishes are set around the edges inside the line that marks the limits of the compartment. The box is then lowered almost to the floor; very strong aqua ammonia (26 per cent.) is quickly poured into the dishes and the box dropped at once to the floor. The strength of the ammonia used for this purpose may be appreciated when one remembers that the ordinary ammonia retailed for household use is about 5 per cent.
Of course, for fuming interior woodwork, the air-tight compartment is hardly practicable; but a fairly good substitute for it may be obtained by shutting up the room in which the woodwork is to be fumed, stuffing up all the crevices as if for fumigating with sulphur and then setting around on the floor a liberal number of dishes into which the ammonia is poured last of all. It is hardly necessary to say that the person to whom the pouring of the ammonia is entrusted will get out of the room as quickly as possible after the fumes are released.
Another way of treating oak with ammonia is to brush the liquid directly on the wood, but owing to the strength of the fumes this is not a very comfortable process for the worker and it is rather less satisfactory in its results. The ammonia being in the nature of water, it naturally raises the grain of the wood. There-fore, after the application, it should be allowed to dry over night and the grain carefully sand-papered down the next day. As this is apt to leave the color somewhat uneven, the wood should again be brushed over with the ammonia and sandpapered a second time after it is thoroughly dry. This method of getting rid of the grain is by no means undesirable, for the wood has a much more beautiful surface after all the loose grain has been raised and then sandpapered off. Where paint or varnish is used there is no necessity for getting rid of the grain, as it is held down by them. But with our finish, which leaves the wood very nearly in its natural state, it is best to dispose of the loose grain once for all and obtain a natural surface that will remain permanently smooth.
We find the finest white oak in the Middle West and Southwest, especially in Indiana, which has furnished large quantities of the best grade of this valuable wood. Like so many of our natural resources, the once bountiful supply of our white oak has been so depleted by reckless use that it is probable that ten or fifteen years more will see the end of quartered oak, and possibly of the best grades of plain-sawn oak as well. The popularity of quarter-sawn oak, —a very wasteful process of manufacture,—is one of the causes of the rapid depletion of our oak forests. We append a small cut showing the cross-section of a tree trunk marked with the lines made by quarter-sawing. As will be seen, the trunk is first cut into quarters and then each quarter is sawn diagonally from the outside to the center, naturally making the boards narrower and increasing the waste.
There is some hope to be derived from the fact that great stretches of oak timberland are now being reforested by the Government, but at best it will be a generation or two before these slow-growing trees are large enough to furnish the best quality of lumber. There is no question as to the greater durability of quarter-sawn oak for uses which demand hard wear and also where the finer effects are desired, as in furniture, but for interior woodwork plain-sawn oak is not only much less expensive than quarter-sawn but is quite as desirable in. every way. The markings are stronger and more interesting, the difference between the hard and soft parts of the grain is better defined, and the openness of texture gives the wood a mellower color quality than it has when quarter-sawn.
The distinguishing characteristic of quarter-sawn oak is the presence of the glassy rays,—technically called medullary rays,—which bind the perpendicular fibers together and give the oak tree its amazing strength. In quarter-sawing, the cut is made parallel with these medullary rays instead of across them, as is done in straight sawing, so that they show prominently, forming the peculiar wavy lines that distinguish quarter-sawn oak. The preservation of the binding properties of these rays gives remarkable structural strength to the wood, which is much less liable to crack, check or warp than when it is plain-sawn. This, of course, makes a difference when it comes to making large panels, table tops, or anything else that shows a large plain surface, and for these uses quarter-sawn oak is preferable merely because it "stands" better. But for the woodwork of a room, we much prefer the plain-sawn oak on account of its friendliness and the delightful play of light and shade that is given by the boldness and color variation of the grain. When quarter-sawn oak is used for large stretches of woodwork, the effect is duller and more austere because the color of the wood is colder and more uniform and it shows a much harder and closer texture.
In the final finishing of oak woodwork, the method that we find most practicable differs somewhat from that described in the directions we have already given for finishing furniture. As the woodwork in a room is not called upon to stand the hard wear that is necessarily given to the furniture, we do not need the shellac, and after the right tone has been obtained by fuming, the wood may be given several coats of prepared floor wax and then rubbed until the surface is satin smooth. If, however, a darker shade of brown is desired, the fumed wood may be given one or more coats of thin shellac, with a little color carried on in each coat, and then finished with wax after the manner described in the directions given for finishing furniture. This method of finishing is one that we have adopted after years of experimenting and it has become so identified with the Craftsman use of oak that it has been very generally taken up by other makers of this style of furniture and by decorators who advocate the Craftsman treatment of interior woodwork.
Next in rank to oak for use in large rooms comes chestnut, which is equally attractive in fiber and markings, has a color quality that is even better, and is plentiful, easily obtained and very reasonable as to cost. While it lacks something of the stateliness and durability of oak, chestnut is even more friendly because of the mellowness and richness of its color, which under very simple treatment takes on a luminous quality that seems to fill the whole room with a soft glow like that of the misty color that is radiated from trees in autumn. Chest-nut takes even more kindly than oak to the fuming process, because it contains a greater percentage of tannin and the texture of the wood itself is softer and more open. But unless a deep tone of brown is desired, fuming may be dispensed with, because the wood is so much richer in the elements from which color can be produced that a delightful effect may be obtained merely by applying a light stain of nut brown or soft gray, under which the natural color of the wood appears as an undertone. The staining is very easy to do, but care should be taken to have only a very little color in each coat because the wood takes the stain so readily that a mere trifle of superfluous color will give a thick muddy effect that destroys the clear luminous quality which isthe chief charm.
In the case of our Crafts-man houses, we find it easier to fume chestnut woodwork than to stain it, and this process is the more to be recommended because chestnut takes the fumes of ammonia very quickly and easily. Also because of this, the ammonia should never be brushed directly on the wood, which is so porous that the moisture is sure to raise the grain to such an extent that the 'amount of sanding required to smooth it down again destroys the natural surface. One great advantage of chestnut,—aside from its charm of color, texture and markings,—is that it is very easy to work, stays in place readily and is so easy to dry that the chances of getting thoroughly dry lumber are much greater than they would be if oak were used.
Next to chestnut, in our opinion, comes rock elm,—a wood that is fairly abundant, not expensive, and easily obtainable, especially in the East. Rock elm is not affected by the fumes of ammonia and, so far as our experiments go, we have never been able to obtain the right color effect by the use of chemicals. Therefore, in order to get a good color, this wood has to be stained. The colors which are most in harmony with its natural color are brown, green, and gray, particularly in the lighter shades. The distinguishing peculiarity of rock elm is its jagged or feathery grain. Also, the difference in color between the hard and softs parts of the wood is very marked, giving, under the right treatment, a charming variation of tone. If one has the patience to experiment with stains on small pieces of rock elm, some unexpectedly good effects may be obtained. Care must be taken, however, that the stain is light enough to show merely as an over-tone that modifies the natural color of the wood, as the interplay of colors in the grain is hidden by too strong a surface tone. Elm is excellent for interior woodwork where the color effect desired is lighter than that given by either oak or chestnut and also it is hard enough to make pretty good furniture. This last is a decided advantage, especially in a room containing many built-in pieces which naturally form a part of the woodwork. In the earlier days of our experimenting with Craftsman furniture we made a good many pieces of elm and found them, on the whole, very satisfactory.
Brown ash comes into the same class with rock elm, as it is good for furniture as well as interior woodwork. It has a texture and color very similar to elm and should be treated in the same way with a very light stain of either brown, gray or green, all of which blend perfectly with the color quality inherent in the wood. Unfortunately, however, brown ash is no longer plentiful, having been wasted in the same reckless way that we have wasted other excellent woods. Some years ago it was used in immense quantities for making cheap furniture, agricultural implements and the like, and as it was used not only freely but wastefully, the supply is today very nearly exhausted.
In considering all these woods in connection with interior woodwork, it is well to keep in mind that each one of them harmonizes admirably with all the others while retaining, to the full, its own individuality. Therefore, in finishing the rooms on the first floor of a house, it is merely a matter of personal choice as to whether or not the same wood should be used throughout, or each room finished in a different wood. We have often recommended that one wood be used because in a Craftsman house there are practically no divisions or partitions between the rooms, and in this case the effect is so much like that of one large room with many nooks and corners that it would seem the natural thing to use one kind of wood for the interior woodwork throughout. However, if a variation should be desired,—and especially if the separation between the rooms were a little more clearly defined,—the use in different rooms of the different woods we have mentioned would be most interesting, as by this means variety in the woodwork could be obtained without any loss of harmony.
In buildings where it seems desirable to show in the woodwork the bold, strikingly artistic effects such as we associate with Japanese woods, we can heartily recommend cypress, which is plentiful, easily obtained and not expensive. For bungalows, mountain camps, seaside cottages, country clubs and the like, where strong and somewhat unusual effects are sought for, cypress will be found eminently satisfactory, as it is strong and brilliant as to markings and possesses most interesting possibilities in the way of color. Cypress is a soft wood belonging to the pine family and we get most of it from the cypress swamps in the Southern States. It is very like the famous Japanese cypress, which gives such a wonderful charm to many of the Japanese buildings and which is so identified with the Japanese use of woods. Over there they bury it for a time in order to get the color quality that is most desired,—a soft gray-brown against which the markings stand out strongly and show varying tones. This method, how-ever, did not seem expedient in connection with our own use of the wood and after long experimenting we discovered that we could get much the same effect by treating it with sulphuric acid.
This process is very simple, as it is merely the application of diluted sulphuric acid directly to the surface of the wood. The commercial sulphuric acid should be used rather than the chemically pure, as the first is much cheaper and is quite as good for this purpose. Generally speaking, the acid should be reduced with water in the proportion of one part of acid to five parts of water, but the amount of dilution depends largely upon the temperature in which the work is done. Conditions are best when the thermometer registers seventy-five degrees or more. If it is above that, the sulphuric acid will stand considerably more dilution than it will take if the air is cooler. Of course, in the case of interior woodwork, it is possible to keep the room at exactly the right temperature by means of artificial heat, but when exterior woodwork or shingles are given the sulphuric acid treatment, it is most important to take into consideration the temperature and state of the weather. Exposure to the direct rays of the sun darkens the wood so swiftly that a much weaker solution is required than when the work is done in the shade. In any case, it is best to do a good deal of experimenting upon small pieces of wood before attempting to put the acid on the woodwork itself, as it is only by this means that the exact degree of strength required to produce the best effect can be determined.
After the application of the acid the wood should be allowed to dry perfectly before putting on the final finish. For interior woodwork this last finish is given by applying one or two coats of wax; for the exterior, one or two coats of raw linseed oil may be used. If the wood threatens to become too dark under the action of the acid, the burning process can be stopped instantly by an application of either oil or wax, so that the degree of corrosion is largely under the control of the worker. A white hog's-bristle brush should be used for applying the acid, as any other kind of brush would be eaten up within a short time. Also great care should be taken to avoid getting acid on the face, hands, or clothing.
In connection with the subject of cypress for interior woodwork, we desire to say something concerning its desirability for outside use, such as half-timbering and other exterior woodwork. It is one of the most attractive of all our woods for such use because of its color quality and markings and it has the further advantage of "standing" well, without either shrinking or swelling. Naturally the sulphuric acid treatment that we have just described applies to this wood whether it is used indoors or out.
Another use of cypress is found in the rived cypress shingle which give us some of the most interesting effects in exterior wall surfaces. These shingles are the product of one of our few remaining handicrafts, and our sole source of supply depends upon the negroes in the Southern swamps. These negroes are adepts at splitting or riving shingles, and when they get the time or need a little extra money, they split up a few cypress logs into shingles and carry them to a lumber merchant in the nearest town. Consequently, the quantity that is available in the market varies, as no merchant has any great or steady supply of rived shingles and has to accumulate them by degrees and store them, in order to be able to fill any large order. Being hand-rived, these shingles cost about twice as much as the machine-sawn shingles, but they are well worth the extra outlay if one desires a house that is beautiful, individual and durable. The sawn shingle, unless oiled or stained in the beginning, is apt to get a dingy, weather-beaten look under the action of sun and rain and to require renewing early and often. But the rived shingle has exactly the surface of the growing tree from which the bark has been stripped ; or, to be more exact, it shows the split surface of a tree trunk from which a bough has been torn, leaving the wood exposed. This surface, while full of irregularities, preserves the smooth natural fiber of the tree, and this takes on a beautiful color quality under the action of the weather, as the color of the wood ripens and shows as an undertone below the smooth silvery sheen of the surface, —an effect which is entirely lost when this natural glint is covered with the "fuzz" left by the saw. These rived shingles are also made of juniper, which is as good in color as cypress and has proven itself even more durable.
All cypress woodwork, whether interior or exterior, takes stain well; and if staining is preferred to the sulphuric acid treatment, very good effects may be gained in this way. We wish, however, to repeat the caution against using too strong a stain, as the effect is always much better if a very little color is carried on in each coat. We cannot too strongly urge the necessity of preliminary experimenting with small pieces of wood in order to gain the best color effects, and we also recommend that in finishing the woodwork of the room itself a very light color be put on at first, to be darkened if a deeper color is found necessary to give the desired effect. The reason for this is that a color which may be considered perfect upon a small piece of wood that is examined closely and held to the light, may prove either too strong or too weak when it is seen on the woodwork as a whole. Much of the effect depends upon the lighting of the room, and therefore it is best to go slowly and "work up" the finish of the woodwork until exactly the right effect is gained. After staining cypress woodwork it should be given either a coat of shellac or wax, or of wax alone, if the amount of wear does not necessitate shellac.
California redwood, when used for interior woodwork, gives an effect as interesting as that obtained by the use of cypress; but redwood does not respond well to the sulphuric acid treatment, which darkens and destroys its beautiful cool pinkish tone. In fact, redwood is best when left in its natural state and rubbed down with wax, as it then keeps in its purity the color quality that naturally belongs to it. Except for this slight finish and protection to the surface, it is a good wood to let alone, as either oil or varnish gives it a hot red look that is disquieting to live with and does not harmonize with any cool tones in the furniture ; stains disguise the charm of its natural color and the chemical treatment brings out a purplish tone and gives a darkened and rather muddy effect.
While hard pine is fairly plentiful and lends itself well either to the sulphuric acid treatment or to simple staining, we do not recommend it for interior woodwork, as it costs no less than other woods we have mentioned and is less interesting in color and grain. But if it should be preferred, we would recommend that it be treated with the sulphuric acid, which gives a soft gray tone to the softer parts of the wood and a good deal of brilliancy to the markings.
In considering the woods that are most desirable for woodwork in rooms where light colors and dainty furnishings are used, birch comes first on the list, as it is nearest in character to the open-textured woods we have just described. Of the several varieties, red birch is best for interior woodwork. It is easily obtained all over the East, the Middle West and the South and costs considerably less than the other woods we have mentioned. When left in its natural state and treated with sulphuric acid, red birch makes really beautiful interior woodwork, as the acid deepens its natural color and gives it a mellowness that is as fine in its way as the mellowness produced in oak or chestnut by fuming. Some such treatment is absolutely necessary, for if red birch is left in its natural state, its color fades instead of ripening, so that it gets more and more of a washed-out look as time goes on. In using the acid on birch it is necessary to have a stronger solution than is required in the case of cypress; one part of acid to three parts of water should give it about the required strength. One advantage of birch is its hardness, for after the acid treatment it needs only waxing and rubbing to give it the final finish. The good qualities of birch, treated in this way and used for interior woodwork, are very little known, because it is the wood which has been used more than any other to imitate mahogany. The grain of birch is very similar to that of the more expensive wood, and when it has been given a red water stain and finished with shellac and varnish it bears a close resemblance to mahogany finished in the modern way; which is by no means to be confused with the rare old Spanish mahogany of the eighteenth century.
Another excellent wood for use in a room that should have comparatively fine and delicate woodwork is maple, which can either be left in its natural color or finished in a tone of clear silver gray. As is well known, the natural maple takes on with use and wear a tone of clear pale yellow. This is not considered generally desirable, but if it should be needed to complete some special color scheme, it can be given to new maple by the careful use of aqua fortis, which should be diluted with water and used like sulphuric acid. The same precautions should be observed in using it, as it is a strong corrosive. Maple is generally considered much more beautiful when finished in the gray tone, as this harmonizes admirably with the colors most often used in a daintily furnished room, —such as dull blue, old rose, pale straw color, reseda green and old ivory. It is not at all difficult to obtain this gray finish, for all that is needed is to brush a weak solution of iron rust on the wood. This solution is not made by using oxide of iron,—which is commonly but erroneously supposed to mean the same thing as iron rust,-.-but is obtained by throwing iron filings, rusty nails or any small pieces of iron into acid vinegar or a weak solution of acetic acid. After a couple of days the solution should be strained off and diluted with water until it is of the strength needed to get the desired color upon the wood. It is absolutely necessary in the case of this treatment to experiment first with small pieces of wood before the solution is applied to the woodwork as a whole, because otherwise it would be impossible to judge as to the strength of solution needed to give the desired effect. The color does not show at all until the application is thoroughly dry. If it is too weak, the wood will not be gray enough, and if it is too strong, it will be dark and muddy looking, sometimes almost black. After the woodwork so treated is perfectly dry and has been carefully sandpapered with very fine sandpaper, it should be given a coat of thin shellac that has been slightly darkened by putting in a few drops of black aniline (the kind that is soluble in alcohol) ; then it is given the final finish by rubbing with wax. These are the only methods we know that give good results on maple. We have tried the sulphuric acid treatment upon this wood, but have not found it satisfactory.
Beech, which is a little darker than maple and of a similar texture and grain, is equally desirable for the same uses. It may be treated either with iron rust or aqua fortis, following the same directions given in the case of maple. This wood is cheap and abundant and is usually found in the same regions which produce birch and maple. Poplar also does very well for the woodwork in a room that is not subjected to hard wear, as it is a very soft wood and will not stand hard usage. The best finish is simply a brown or green stain thin enough to allow the natural color of the wood to show through it. This natural color has in it a strong suggestion of green, so that it affiliates with the green stain and modifies the brown.
One wood that hitherto has been very little known, but that is coming more and more into prominence for the finer sorts of interior woodwork, is gumwood, which is obtained from the red gum that grows so abundantly in the Southern States and on the Pacific Coast. It is a pity that this beautiful wood should have been so little used that most people are unfamiliar with it, because for woodwork where fine texture, smooth surface and delicate coloring are required, quarter-sawn gumwood stands unsurpassed among our native woods. The best effects are obtained from gumwood by treating it with the iron-rust solution used in the way already described in connection with maple; but much more diluted, as the color of gumwood needs only the slightest possible mellowing and toning to make it perfect. When treated with a very weak iron-rust solution it bears a close resemblance to Circassian walnut, and the surface, which is smooth and lustrous as satin, shows a delightful play of light and shade. Sulphuric acid may be used on gumwood, but should be much more diluted than for any other wood, the proportion of acid being not more than one part to eight parts of water. This treatment gives a pinkish cast to the natural gray-brown tone of the wood, and while this does not harmonize as readily with most colors as does the pure gray-brown, it is very effective with certain decorative schemes.
Other woods that are valuable for interior woodwork, although much less plentiful than those we have named, are black walnut, butternut, quartered sycamore and several other woods that come naturally into the same class. Our American black walnut, although one of the standard woods in Europe, has been in a great measure spoiled for us because of its abuse during what we now speak of as the "black walnut period," which has come to mean over-ornamentation, distorted shapes and general bad taste. We have no forests of black walnut left, but there are still single trees, so that if this wood is especially desired, it may be obtained without much difficulty. The characteristics of butternut are much the same as those of black walnut, but it is rather lighter in color and not so hard.
Many people prefer white enameled woodwork for daintily furnished rooms. When this is used, the best kinds of wood for the purposeare poplar and basswood, preferably poplar. One thing should be remembered in connection with white woodwork, and that is that it should be treated in an entirely different way from the typical Craftsman woodwork, which depends for its effect upon the beauty of color and grain and therefore emphasizes these by means of simple forms, straight lines and plain surfaces. When white enameled woodwork is used, the style of it should be more elaborate, as all the interest that naturally belongs to the wood is hidden, and the only way to obtain the play of light and shade necessary to break up the monotony of the white surface is to use moldings, beadings and similar ornamentation, after what is called the Adam style, which we find in the best of our Colonial houses.
In considering interior woodwork one point should not be forgotten; that is the great interest that may be obtained by the right use of what, from a commercial point of view, is faulty wood. We all know the interest and charm of paneling and other woodwork that displays irregularities in the grain, such as knots, knurls and all sorts of queer twists. One of the best examples is found in the "curly" redwood, which is so greatly sought after in California. While the use of such pieces adds greatly to the beauty of a room, the selection of them requires much taste and judgment and absolutely demands that the personal attention of the owner or decorator be given to the work. It is never safe to trust the selection of faulty wood to the lumber merchant or its placing to the carpenter. The necessity of this care is rather an advantage than otherwise, because it is upon just such touches as these that much of the individuality of a decorative scheme depends.
We have treated fully the selection and coloring of the wood, but one practical detail that should be remembered by all who desire beautiful woodwork is that particular attention should be paid to having all the wood thoroughly kiln-dried. Even more important is the necessity of having the house free from dampness before the woodwork is put in, because no wood, however dry and well seasoned, will stand against the dampness of a newly plastered house. In fact, the effect upon the woodwork in such a case is almost worse than when the wood itself is not thoroughly seasoned, for in the latter case it will merely shrink, while dampness in the house will cause it to swell and bulge. The drying of wood not only needs close attention but the aid of some experienced person, as kiln-dried lumber is very apt to be uneven, and there is need of very careful watching while the wood is in the kiln to insure the even drying of all the boards, or the woodwork will be ruined.
Another thing that is worth watching is the final smoothing of the wood before it is put into place. After it leaves the planing machines in the mill it has to be made still smoother, and so most mills that furnish interior trim have installed sandpapering machines. These are convenient and labor-saving, but give a result that is very undesirable for fine woodwork, as the rotary sanding "fuzzes" the grain and, under the light finish we use, it is apt to be raised and roughened by moisture absorbed from the atmosphere. This does not matter when the woodwork is varnished, because the varnish holds it down, but where the natural surface of the wood is preserved great care should be used in the treatment of the grain.
The popularity of Craftsman furniture and interior woodwork has created a demand for a surface that shows the sheen of the knife rather than the fuzz of the sanding machine, and some mills have met this demand by putting in scraping machines. These give better results than the sanding machines, but nothing equals the surface that is obtained by smoothing the wood by hand just before it is put into place. For this we use the hand scraper and a smoothing plane that is kept very sharp, as by this method the fiber is cut clean instead of being "cottoned out" and the sheen that naturally belongs to the wood is unimpaired. Although this means hand work, it is not very expensive because of the inconsiderable quantity of wood that is used in a house. Also the Craftsman method of finishing afterward costs so little that the slight extra care and expense incurred in obaining just the right surface is well worth while.
In connection with the woodwork in a house it is necessary to give some attention to the floors, which come into close relation with the treatment of the walls. The best wood for flooring is quartered oak, which all lumber merchants keep in stock in narrow widths, tongued and grooved. We find, however, that a more interesting floor can be made by using wider boards of uneven width, as this gives an effect of strength and bigness to the room. These wide boards need not be tongued and grooved, but may be put together with butt joints and the boards nailed through the top by using brad-head nails that can be countersunk and the holes puttied up so that they are almost invisible.
When very wide boards are used it is best to build the floor in "three ply," like paneling. Plain sawn oak is also good for flooring, but it is more likely to warp and sliver than quartered oak and it does not lie so flat. An oak floor, whether plain or quarter-sawn, must always be filled with a silex wood filler so that its surface is made smooth and non-absorbent. The color should be made the same as that of the woodwork, or a little darker; and after the stain is applied, the floor should be given one coat of shellac and then waxed. In rooms where the color schemes permit a slightly reddish tone in the floor, we would suggest that either birch or beech be used for flooring, as these may be finished by the sulphuric acid process, —a method which is better than stain because it darkens the wood itself and therefore does not wear off with use. If a gray floor should be desired, we would suggest maple treated with the iron-rust solution. In either case a coat of thin shellac should be applied after the chemical has been thoroughly dried,— say twenty-four hours after the first application, —and then waxed in the regular way. For ordinary floors a good wood to use is comb-grained pine, which receives its name from the method of sawing that leaves the grain in straight lines, not unlike the teeth of a comb. This does not warp or sliver and is very durable; it may be treated with stain and then given the regular finish of shellac and wax.